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A Vitamin B12 deficiency may lead to various health problems, ranging from fatigue to permanent neurological changes

It emphasizes the mechanisms by which compounds such as polyphenols, terpenoids, and carotenoids counteract OS, a critical factor in the pathogenesis of DN

For example, T cells and B cells in GALT can recognize and eliminate translocated bacteria while simultaneously producing anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10 to sustain intestinal immune tolerance (134, 135).Moreover, innate immune cells recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns via pattern recognition receptors (e.g., Toll-like receptors) and activate signaling pathways like NF-B, thereby modulating the intensity and duration of the immune response (136)

No serious adverse events were reported