After the intestinal epithelium absorbs amino acids such as leucine, mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling is activated to initiate the synthesis of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in hepatocytes (85)
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Microbial-derived metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), including acetate, propionate, and butyrate, tryptophan derivatives, including indoxyl sulfate (IS), indole-3-aldehyde (IAld), and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and lipid derivatives, play a bridging role between the gut and host ( Figure 2 ) [39, 40]
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